United States Environmental Protection Office of Water EPA 811-95-002-T Agency 4603 October 1995 ____________________________________________________________________________ NATIONAL PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Contaminant Specific Fact Sheets Inorganic Chemicals - Technical Version Asbestos Lead Barium Copper Cadmium Antimony Chromium Beryllium Mercury Cyanide Nitrates/Nitrites Nickel Selenium Thallium National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: ANTIMONY Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.006 mg/l MCL: 0.006 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 0.01 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.01 mg/L Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found antimony to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Short-term exposures in drinking water considered "safe" for a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming one liter of water per day: a long-term (upto 7 years) exposure to 0.01 mg/L. Chronic: Antimony has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: decreased longevity, altered blood levels of glucose and cholesterol. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not antimony has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns In 1984, 64.5 million lbs. antimony ore was mined and refined. Production of the most commonly used antimony compound, the trioxide, increased during the 1980s to about 31 million lbs, reported in 1985. In 1985, it was estimated that industries consumed antimony trioxide as follows: Flame retardant, 76%; catalyst, 6%; pigments, 5%; glass, 8%; miscellaneous, 5%. Primary antimony was used as follows: Flame retardant, 60%; transportation (including batteries), 10%; ceramics/glass, 10%; other uses, 10%. Release Patterns The most common antimony ores are the sulfide, stibnite, and the trioxide, valentinite. Other ores include cervantite, livingstonite, jamisonite, and kermesite. Antimony is also a common component of coal and petroleum. Industrial dust and exhaust gases of cars and oil fuels are the main sources of antimony in urban air. Substantial amounts of antimony trioxide are released to the atmosphere during processing of antimony materials including smelting of ores, molding and incineration of products, as well as the combustion of fossil fuels which are utilize the high temperatures needed to volatilize antimony trioxide. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory antimony and antimony compound releases to land and water totalled over 12 million lbs., of which nearly all was to land. These releases were primarily from copper and other nonferrous smelting and refining industries. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Montana. The greatest releases to water occurred in Washington and Louisiana. Environmental Fate Little information is available on the transformations and transport of antimony in various media. The mobility of antimony in soils is not clearly understood. The strength of its adsorption to soil and sediments depends upon a variety of factors such as pH, organic matter content, as well as the oxidation state of the particular salt. Some studies indicate that antimony is highly mobile, while others conclude that it strongly adsorbs to soil. In water, it usually adheres to sediments. There is no evidence of bioconcentration of most antimony compounds, though one report states that the tribromide can be concentrated by certain forms of marine life to over 300 times its concentration in water. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 1440-36-0 (metal) Color/ Form/Odor: Antimony is a metal which occurs in nature only in the combined state Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: BCF up to 300; may accumulate in some aquatic organisms Solubilities: stibine- slightly soluble trifluoride- 4.4 kg/L at 20 deg C trioxide- slightly soluble trisulfide- 1.8 mg/L at 18 deg C Common Ores: trioxide-Valentinite; sulfide-Stibnite. Other ores/natural sources: cervantite, livingstonite, jamisonite, kermesite, petroleum Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.006 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Number EPA 600/4-79-020 204.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.9; 200.8 Standard Methods 3113 ASTM D3697-87 Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Coagulation/Filtration, Reverse Osmosis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water LandTOTALS 330,064 12,003,373 Top Ten States * AZ 505 7,074,128 MT 0 2,338,697 TX 24,817 840,392 LA 55,414 344,762 WI 1,445 392,000 MO 784 188,266 WA 63,220 99,915 ID 2,600 140,250 TN 687 108,325 AL 27,536 69,503 Major Industries* Copper smelting, refining 505 7,074,128 Other nonferrous smelt. 17,015 2,383,947 Sec. nonferrous smelt. 1,459 803,398 Misc Indust. Organics 18,424 581,465 Porcelain plumb. fixtures 1,445 392,000 Petroleum refining 111,527 202,251 Misc Inorganic chems. 4,962 140,250 Plastics, resins 20 60,372 Storage batteries 0 45,952 Synthetic fibers 26,803 12,535 * Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: ASBESTOS Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 7 million fibers per liter (MFL) (fibers > 10 microns in length) MCL: 7 million fibers per liter (MFL) HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute: No reliable data are available on the acute toxic effects from short-term exposures to asbestos. No Health Advisories have been established for short-term exposures. Chronic: Asbestos has the potential to cause lung disease from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL. Cancer: Asbestos has the potential to cause cancer of the lung and other internal organs from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL. Usage Patterns Because asbestos fibers are resistant to heat and most chemicals, they have been mined for use in a variety of products (over 3,000 different products in the United States). In 1988, asbestos was consumed in roofing products, 28%; friction products, 26%; asbestos cement pipe, 14%; packing and gaskets, 13%; paper, 6%; and other 13%. Pipe products find use in water supply, sewage disposal, & irrigation systems. Asbestos cement sheets are used in a wide variety of construction applications. Other uses of asbestos include fire resistant textiles, friction materials (ie, brake linings), underlayment & roofing papers, & floor tiles. Crocidolite can be spun & woven using modified cotton industry machinery; the asbestos cloth is used for fireproof clothing & curtains. Most uses of asbestos were banned in the United States by the EPA on July 12, 1989 because of potential adverse health effects in exposed persons. The remaining, currently allowed uses of asbestos include battery separators, sealant tape, asbestos thread, packing materials, and certain industrial uses of both sheet gaskets and beater-add gaskets. Release Patterns Asbestos fibers may enter the environment from natural sources such as erosion of asbestos-containing ores, but the primary source of asbestos in the environment is through the wear or breakdown of asbestos-containing materials. Asbestos fibers have been released into water by the dumping of mining tailings into lakes, by the runoff of process and air scrubber water into lakes and streams, and by the use of asbestos cement pipes in water supply systems. Over one million tons of asbestos is contained in friable materials in ships, buildings, power plants, chemical plants, refineries, and other locations of high temperature equipment. Other products may include insulation, automobile brakes, cement pipes, and roofing materials. The maintenance, repair, and removal of this material will account for the principal releases in the future. Asbestos fibers also can be released to the environment from asbestos processing, including milling, manufacturing, and fabrication. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory, asbestos releases to land totalled nearly 9 million lbs., and releases to water totalled nearly 33,000 lbs. These releases were primarily from asbestos products industries which use asbestos in roofing materials friction materials, and cement. The largest releases occurred in Pennsylvania and Louisiana. Environmental Fate As a naturally occurring substance, asbestos can be present in surface and ground water. Because asbestos fibers in water do not evaporate into air or break down in water, small fibers and fiber-containing particles may be carried long distances by water currents before settling to the bottom; larger fibers and particles tend to settle more quickly. Asbestos does not tend to adsorb to solids normally found in natural water systems, but some materials (trace metals and organic compounds) have an affinity for asbestos minerals. The fibers are not able to move down through soil to ground water. Asbestos is not affected by photolytic processes and is considered to be non-biodegradable by aquatic organisms. Asbestos fibers are not broken down to other compounds in the environment and, therefore, can remain in the environment for decades or longer. There are no data regarding the bioaccumulation of asbestos in aquatic organisms. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 1332-21-4 Color/ Form/Odor: White, gray, green or brown crystalline fibers; odorless Solubilities: insoluble Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: N/A; not expected to bioconcentrate Common Ores: Amosite, Chrysotile, Crocidiolite; Tremolite; Ascarite Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground and Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 9 years Repeat Frequency-1 sample once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 7 MFL, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers Transmission Electron Microscopy EPA 800/4-83-043 Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Coagulation/Filtration; Direct and Diatomite Filtration; Corrosion Control Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 32,650 8,620,439 Top Five States* PA 0 2,945,049 LA 61 2,256,400 TX 0 1,737,200 AR 1,000 568,227 VA 0 480,000 Major Industries* Asbestos products 3,005 2,510,227 Alkalis, chlorine 1,973 2,256,404 Industrial organic chems 0 1,230,000 Asphalt felts, coatings 5 871,067 Auto parts 0 563,694 Petroleum refining 0 314,560 Plastic pipes 0 235,200 Shipbuilding, repairing 0 211,400 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: BARIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 2 mg/l MCL: 2 mg/l HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found barium to potentially cause gastrointestinal disturbances and muscular weakness resulting from acute exposures at levels above the MCL. No Health Advisories have been established for short-term exposures. Chronic: Barium has the potential to cause hypertension resulting from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL. Cancer: There is no evidence that barium has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns The largest end use of barium metal is as a "getter" to remove the last traces of gases from vacuum and television picture tubes. It is also used to improve performance of lead alloy grids of acid batteries; as a component of grey and ductile irons; in the manufacture of steel, copper and other metals; as a loader for paper, soap, rubber and linoleum. Barium peroxide is used as a bleach, in dyes, fireworks and tracer-bullets, in igniter and welding materials, and in manufacture of hydrogen peroxide and oxygen. The permanganate is used as a dry cell depolarizer and in disinfectants. Barium nitrate is used in fireworks, ceramic glazes, electronics, tracer bullets, detonators, and neon sign lights. Barium cyanide is used in electroplating and metallurgy. Barium chlorate is used in fireworks, explosives, matches, and as a mordant in dyeing. Barium carbonate is used as follows: 45 percent as ingredient in glass, 25 percent in brick and clay products, 7 percent as a raw material for barium ferrites, 4 percent in photographic paper coatings, 19 percent other. Barium hydroxide is used in lubricating oils and greases and as a component of detergents in motor oils. It is also used in plastics stabilizers, papermaking additives, sealing compounds, vulcanization accelerators, pigment dispersants and self-extinguishing polyurethane foams and to protect limestone objects from deterioration. Barium chloride is used in pigments, glass, dyeing, leather tanning, chlorine and sodium hydroxide manufacture and in water softening. Barium-based dyes are widely used in inks, paints, cosmetics and drugs. Over 65% of barite produced was used as a weighting agent in oil and gas well drilling fluids, with a 50 percent decrease in demand for barite in 1986 due primarily to a severe downturn in oil and gas well drilling activity prompted by soft world oil prices. Barium sulfate is also used in photographic papers, pigments and as a filler for rubber & resins. Release Patterns Barium metal does not occur in nature. The most common ores are the sulfate, barite, found in AK, AR, CA, GA, KY, MO, NV, TN, and the carbonate, witherite, found in AR, CA, GA, KY, MO, NV. Barite was produced at 38 mines in the seven states in 1973, with Nevada supplying 50% of the tonnage. Missouri ranked second. Barium is released to water and soil in the discharge and disposal of drilling wastes, from the smelting of copper, and the manufacture of motor vehicle parts and accessories. Barium is emitted into the atmosphere mainly by the industrial processes involved in the mining, refining, and production of barium and barium-based chemicals, and as a result of combustion of coal and oil. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory barium compound releases to land and water totalled over 57 million lbs., of which about 99 percent was to land. These releases were primarily from copper smelting industries which use barium as a deoxidizer. The largest releases occurred in Arizona and Utah. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Texas. Barium is found in waste streams from a large number of manufacturing plants in quantities that seldom exceed the normal levels found in soil. Background levels for soil range from 100-3000 ppm barium. Occurs naturally in almost all (99.4%) surface waters examined, in concentration of 2 to 340 ug/l, with an average of 43 ug/l. The drainage basins with low mean concentration of barium (15 ug/l) occur in the western Great Lakes, & the highest mean concentration of 90 ug/l is in the southwestern drainage basins of the lower Mississippi Valley. In stream water & most groundwater, only traces of the element are present. There are limited survey data on the occurrence of barium in drinking water. Most supplies contain less than 200 ug/l of barium. The average concentration of barium in USA drinking water is 28.6 ug/l (1977 data). The drinking water of many communities in Illinois, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, & New Mexico contains concentrations of barium that may be 10 times higher than the drinking water standard. The source of these supplies is usually well water. Currently 60 ground water supplies and 1 surface water supply exceeds 1000 ug/l. Environmental Fate In water, the more toxic soluble barium salts are likely to precipitate out as the less toxic insoluble sulfate or carbonate. Barium is not very mobile in most soil systems. Adsorption of barium was measured in a sandy soil and a sandy loam soil at levels closely corresponding to those to be expected for field conditions. In general, sludge solutions appeared to increase the mobility of elements in a soil. This is due to a combination of complexation by dissolved organic compounds, high background concentration and high ionic strengths of the soil solution. Marine animals concentrate the element 7-100 times, and marine plants 1000 times from seawater. Soybeans and tomatoes also accumulate soil barium 2-20 times. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-39-3 (metal) Color/ Form/Odor: Barium is a lustrous, machinable metal which exists in nature only in combined form. Soil sorption coefficient: Koc N/A; high mobility Bioconcentration Factor: BCFs of 7-100 for marine animals, 1000 for marine plants, 2-20 for some crops. Common Ores: sulfate- Barite; carbonate- Witherite Solubilities (water): carbonate- 22 mg/L at 18 deg C chloride- 310 g/L at 0 deg C chromate- 3.4 mg/L at 16 deg C cyanide 800 g/L at 14 deg C hydroxide- sol. in dil. acid nitrate- 87 g/L at 20 deg permanganate- 625 g/L at 11 deg peroxide- sol. in dil. acid sulfate- 2.2 mg/L at 18 deg C Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 2 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 208.1; 208.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.7 Standard Methods 3111D; 3113B Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Lime Softening, Electrodialysis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 928,448 57,063,031 Top Ten States * AZ 0 14,595,520 UT 1,500 13,423,164 VA 0 9,218,901 NM 0 5,233,790 IL 34,000 3,977,817 TN 0 2,586,906 AL 31,041 1,638,988 PA 15,582 1,216,362 TX 167,864 599,565 NJ 20,905 705,666 Major Industries* Copper smelting 1,500 31,958,310 Car parts, accessories 1,743 9,456,667 Industrial organics 132,511 4,106,827 Inorganic pigments 5,261 3,672,451 Gray, ductile iron 0 1,556,681 Steelworks, furnaces 256,582 679,999 Electrometallurgy 1,599 633,876 Paper mills 64,770 527,330 * Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: BERYLLIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.004 mg/l MCL: 0.004 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 30 mg/L; Longer-term: 4 mg/L Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found beryllium to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: inhalation may cause acute chemical pneumonitis; less toxic via oral exposure. Short-term exposures in drinking water considered "safe" for a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming one liter of water per day: up to a ten-day exposure to 30 mg/L; a longer-term exposure (upto 7 years) to 4 mg/L. Chronic: Beryllium has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: damage to bones and lungs. Cancer: There is limited evidence that beryllium may cause cancer from lifetime exposures at levels above the MCL. Usage Patterns Production of beryllium metal increased during the 1980s: from almost 300,000 lbs. in 1982 to 490,000 lbs in 1986. In 1986, it was estimated that the greatest use of beryllium is as an alloy and metal in nuclear reactors and aerospace applications, which consumed 40% of all production in 1986. Consumption for other uses: as an alloy and oxide in electrical equipment, 35%; as an alloy and oxide in electronic components, 17%; and as compounds and metal in other applications, 8%. Beryllium metal is used as a hardener in alloys; in space vehicles, navigation and optical equipment, and missile fuel. The chloride is used as a catalyst and intermediate in chemical manufacture. The oxide is used in glass/ceramics; as a component of nuclear fuels and moderators, electric heat sinks; electrical insulators; microwave oven components; gyroscopes; military vehicle armor; rocket nozzles; crucibles; thermocouple tubing; laser structural components. Release Patterns Beryllium is concentrated in silicate minerals relative to sulfides and in feldspar minerals relative to ferromagnesium minerals. The greatest known naturally occurring concentrations of beryllium are found in certain pegmatite bodies. Certain fossil fuels contain beryllium compounds, perhaps accounting for its presence in some community air samples. Beryllium is not likely to be found in natural water above trace levels due to the insolubility of oxides and hydroxides at the normal pH range. It has been reported to occur in US drinking water at 0.01 to 0.7 ug/L. Beryllium enters the environment principally from coal combustion. Beryllium content of the ashes and wastewater from a power plant suggest that secondary long term beryllium pollution emerges from the slag and ash dumps. It is also found in discharges from other industrial and municipal operations. Rocket exhaust products also consist of its compounds, principally the oxide, fluoride and chloride. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory beryllium releases to land and water totalled over 340,000 lbs., of which most was to land. These releases were primarily from copper rolling and drawing industries which use it as a hardener in alloys. The largest releases occurred in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Environmental Fate There is little information available on the environmental fate of beryllium and its compounds. Beryllium compounds of very low water solubility appear to predominate in soils. Leaching and transport through soils to ground water appears unlikely to be of concern. Erosion and bulk transport of soil may bring beryllium to surface waters, but most likely in particulate rather than dissolved form. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-41-7 Color/ Form/Odor: Beryllium is a grayish metal which exists in nature only in combined forms, and in some precious stones such as emeralds, aquamarine. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: Nitrate BCF = 100 under constant exposure; not expected to bioaccumulate. Solubilities: chloride very soluble fluoride very soluble hydroxide slightly sol. in dil. alkali oxide insoluble phosphate poorly soluble sulfate- insol. in cold water Common Ores: Major commercial ore is bertrandite; oxide- bromellite; others: phenacite, pegmatite bodies. Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.004 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 210.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.7; 200.8; 200.9 ASTM D3645-84B Standard Methods 3113; 3120 Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Activated Alumina; Coagulation/filtration; Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 1,314 341,721 Top Five States * PA 653 174,250 OH 490 166,292 MI 5 1,000 TX 0 174 MN 142 0 Major Industries* Copper rolling, drawing 405 180,502 Nonferrous metal smelting 481 151,790 Nonferrous rolling, drawing 4 8,000 Aluminum foundries 5 1,000 Blast furnaces, steelworks 250 250 Petroleum refining 142 174 For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: CADMIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.005 mg/l MCL: 0.005 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 0.04 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.005 mg/L Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found cadmium to potentially cause a variety of effects from acute exposures, including: nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle cramps, salivation, sensory disturbances, liver injury, convulsions, shock and renal failure. Drinking water levels which are considered "safe" for short-term exposures: For a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming 1 liter of water per day, a one- to ten-day exposure to 0.04 mg/L; a longer-term (up to 7 years) exposure to 0.005 mg/L. Chronic: Cadmium has the potential to cause kidney, liver, bone and blood damage from long- term exposure at levels above the MCL. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not cadmium has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns 2.9 million lbs of cadmium were produced in the US in 1986, and nearly twice that amount was imported in the same year. According to 1986 estimates, cadmium is used primarily for metal plating and coating operations (35%), including transportation equipment, machinery and baking enamels, photography, television phosphors. It is also used in nickel-cadmium and solar batteries (25%), in pigments (20%), as a stabilizer in plastics and synthetic products (15%), alloys and other uses (5%). Cadmium salts have had a very limited use as fungicide for golf courses and home lawns. Release Patterns Cadmium occurs naturally in zinc, lead and copper ores, in coal and other fossil fuels, shales and is released during volcanic action. These deposits can serve as sources to ground and surface waters, especially when in contact with soft, acidic waters. Major industrial releases of cadmium are due to wastestreams and leaching of landfills, and from a variety of operations that involve cadmium or zinc. These may include: during the smelting and refining of zinc, lead and copper bearing ores; during recovery of metal by processing scrap; during melting and pouring of cadmium metal; during casting of various cadmium alloy products used for coating telephone cables, trolley wires, welding, electrodes, automatic sprinkling systems, steam boilers, fire alarms, high pressure/temperature bearings, starting switches, aircraft relays, light duty circuit breakers, low temperature solder, and jewelry; during fabrication of metal, alloys, or plated steel; during casting and use of solders; during melting of cadmium ingots for paint and pigment manufacture used for coloring of plastics and ceramic glazes, electroplating, and in chemical synthesis; during coating of metals by hot dipping or spraying; during manufacture of nickel-cadmium batteries for use in radio portable telephones, convenience appliances, and vented cells used in airplanes, helicopters, and stand-by power and lighting. The remaining cadmium emissions are from fossil fuel combustion, fertilizer application, and sewage sludge disposal. Cadmium also occurs as a by-product of corrosion of some galvanized plumbing and distribution system materials. From 1987 to 1993, according to EPA's Toxic Chemical Release Inventory, cadmium releases were primarily from zinc, lead and copper smelting and refining industries, with the largest releases occurring in Arizona and Utah. Environmental Fate The oxide and sulfide are relatively insoluble while the chloride and sulfate salts are soluble. The adsorption of cadmium onto soils and silicon or aluminum oxides is strongly pH-dependent, increasing as conditions become more alkaline. When the pH is below 6-7, cadmium is desorbed from these materials. Cadmium has considerably less affinity for the absorbents tested than do copper, zinc, and lead and might be expected to be more mobile in the environment than these materials. Studies have indicated that cadmium concentrations in bed sediments are generally at least an order of magnitude higher than in overlying water. A study of Ottawa River sediments found that sediment composed mainly of well sorted sand may be an efficient sink for heavy metals if there is a significant amount of organic material added to the sediments by the commercial activities such as logging. Both sorption and desorption were controlled by the nature of total heavy metal loading, the sediment type, and the surface water characteristics. Addition of anions, such as humate, tartrate, to dissolved cadmium caused an increase in adsorption. The mode by which cadmium is sorbed to the sediments is important in determining its disposition toward remobilization. Cadmium found in association with carbonate minerals, precipitated as stable solid compounds, or co-precipitated with hydrous iron oxides would be less likely to be mobilized by resuspension of sediments or biological activity. Cadmium absorbed to mineral surfaces (eg clay) or organic materials would be more easily bioaccumulated or released in the dissolved state when sediments are disturbed, such as during flooding. Cadmium is not known to form volatile compounds in the aquatic environment. Bioconcentration of cadmium sulfate, nitrate and chloride has been studied in a wide variety of aquatic organisms, and can be quite high in some species, low in others. For example, rainbow trout have a BCF of 33 while a BCF of 2213 was measured in the mosquito fish. Similarly, different species of clams have BCFs ranging from 160 to 3770. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-43-9 (metal) Color/ Form/Odor: Cadmium is a lustrous silvery metallic element found only in combined forms in nature. Soil sorption coefficient: Koc = N/A; mobility higher than other metals Bioconcentration Factor: Fish: 33 to 2213; Shell fish: 5 to 2500; Other invertebrates: 164 to 4190; Plants: 603 to 960. Common Ores: sulfide- greenockite; carbonate- octavite; others: hawleyite. Also found in zinc, copper, lead ores. Solubilities (water): acetate- very soluble bromide- 570 g/L at 10 deg C carbonate- insoluble chloride- 1400 g/L at 20 deg C fluoroborate- very soluble mercury sulfide- N/A nitrate- 1090 g/L at 0 deg C oxide- insoluble sulfate- 755 g/L at 0 deg C sulfide- insoluble stearate- N/A Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.005 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 213.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.7 Standard Methods 3113B Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Coagulation/Filtration, Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 31,487 2,059,574 Top Seven States * AZ 503 433,035 UT 1,750 372,010 MT 0 315,965 TN 2,700 288,781 ID 250 225,761 MO 2,361 189,914 WI 0 106,000 Major Industries* Zinc, lead smelting 5,061 831,948 Copper smelting, refining 2,253 805,045 Indust. inorganic chems 250 225,761 Electroplating, anodizing 0 106,000 Steelworks, blast furnaces 5 13,000 Inorganic pigments 5,140 7,000 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: CHROMIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.1 mg/l MCL: 0.1 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 1 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.2 mg/L Note: These standards are based on the total concentration of the trivalent and hexavalent forms of dissolved chromium (Cr3+ and Cr 6+). Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found chromium to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: skin irritation or ulceration. Drinking water levels which are considered "safe" for short-term exposures: For a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming 1 liter of water per day, a one- to ten-day exposure to 1 mg/L; a longer-term (7 years) exposure to 0.2 mg/L. Chronic: Chromium has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: damage to liver, kidney circulatory and nerve tissues; dermatitis. Cancer: There is no evidence that chromium in drinking water has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns Chromium and its compounds are used in metal alloys such as stainless steel; protective coatings on metal; magnetic tapes; and pigments for paints, cement, paper, rubber, composition floor covering and other materials. Other uses include: chemical intermediate for wood preservatives, organic chemical synthesis, photochemical processing and industrial water treatment. In medicine, chromium compounds are used in astringents and antiseptics. They also are used in cooling waters, and in the leather tanning industry, in catalytic manufacture, and in fungicides; as an algaecide against slime forming bacteria and yeasts in brewery processing water and brewery warmer water. Chromic acid consumption patterns in 1988: wood preserving, 63%; metal finishing, 22%; other, including water treatment, magnetic particles and catalysts, 7%; exports, 8%. Demand: 1987: 57,500 tons; 1988: 62,500 tons; 1992 (projected): 78,800 tons. Sodium Bichromate consumption patterns in 1988: chromic acid, 54%; leather tanning, 9%; chromium oxide, 9%; pigments, 8%; wood preservation, 5%; other, including drilling muds, catalysts, water treatment, metal finishing, 5%; exports, 10%. Demand: 1987: 150,000 tons; 1988: 164,000 tons; 1992 (projected): 180,000 tons Release Patterns Chromium occurs in nature mostly as chrome iron ore, or chromite. Though widely distributed in soils and plants, it is rare in natural waters. The two largest sources of chromium emission in the atmosphere are from the chemical manufacturing industry and combustion of natural gas, oil, and coal. Other sources include wind transport from road dust, cement producing plants because cement contains chromium, the wearing down of asbestos brake linings from automobiles or similar sources of wind carried asbestos since asbestos contains chromium, incineration of municipal refuse and sewage sludge, exhaust emission from automotive catalytic converters, emissions from cooling towers that use chromium compounds as rust inhibitors, waste waters from electroplating, leather tanning, and textile industries when discharged into surface waters, and solid wastes from chemical manufacture. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory, chromium compound releases to land and water totalled nearly 200 million pounds, of which about 99 percent was to land. These releases were primarily from industrial organic chemical industries which use chromium as an intermediate. The largest releases occurred in Texas and North Carolina. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Georgia and Pennsylvania. Background levels in water average 1 ug/L while municipal drinking water contain 0.1-35 ug/L. The higher values of chromium can be related to sources of anthropogenic pollution. In ocean water, the mean chromium concentration is lower than in river water, and its value is 0.3 ug/l, with a range of 0.2 to 50 ug/l. A survey of 3834 tap waters reported the concentrations of chromium to range from 0.4 to 8.0 ug/l. The reported chromium concentrations in this study may be a little higher than the actual values due to inadequate flushing of tap water before collection of samples. This indicates that the concentration of chromium in household tap water may increase due to plumbing materials. Environmental Fate Chromium is not likely to migrate to ground water. A field trial on the application of wastewater treatment sludge to soils found movement of heavy metals, including chromium, from the soil surface to a depth of 10 cm, but most of the metal (mean 87%) remained in the upper 5 cm of soil. Uptake by plants is generally low; it was found to be greater from ultrabasic soils by a factor of 5-40 than on calcareous or silica-based soils. Chromium compounds are very persistent in water. Most of the chromium in surface waters may be present in particulate form as sediment. Some of the particulate chromium would remain as suspended matter and ultimately be deposited in sediments. The exact chemical forms of chromium in surface waters are not well defined. Although most of the soluble chromium in surface waters may be present as Cr(VI), a small amount may be present as Cr(III) organic complexes. Hexavalent chromium is the major stable form of chromium in seawater; however, Cr(VI) may be reduced to Cr(III) by organic matter present in water, and may eventually deposit in sediments. Though little data is available, there is a high potential for bioconcentration of chromium in aquatic organisms. Snails showed an accumulation factor of 1x10+6. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-47-3 Color/ Form/Odor: Chromium is metal found in nature only in the combined state. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A; Low mobility Bioconcentration Factor: BCF in plants, 1000; in snails, 1,000,000; expected to accumulate in aquatic organisms. Common Ores: oxide- Iron chromite Solubilities: chloride- soluble in cold water chromate- 0.2 mg/L (lead salt) chromate- 873 g/L at 30 deg C (sodium salt) chromate oxide- insoluble dichromate- 2380 g/L at 0 deg C (sodium salt) dioxide- insoluble oxide- insoluble sulfate- insoluble trioxide- 617 g/L at 0 deg C Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.1 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 218.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 3113B; 3120 Standard Methods 200.7 Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Coagulation/Filtration; Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Lime Softening (for CrIII only) Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 2,876,055 196,880,624 Top Ten States * TX 102,079 64,301,920 NC 43,522 55,217,044 IN 85,570 15,955,895 OH 51,830 8,319,600 UT 1,750 5,817,015 AR 2,300 3,532,000 KY 255 2,491,519 PA 110,149 2,337,905 GA 679,721 1,404,698 ID 91,750 1,404,870 Major Industries* Indust. organics 3,272 120,707,814 Steelworks, Blast furn. 609,174 16,638,880 Electrometallurgy 33,269 10,796,928 Copper smelting, refining 1,750 5,817,015 Nonferrous smelting 2,300 3,532,000 Inorganic pigments 88,721 1,375,700 Pulp mills 985,800 224,198 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: COPPER Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 1.3 mg/L Action Level: > 1.3 mg/L in 10 percent or more of tap water samples HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute and Chronic: Copper is an essential nutrient, but at high doses it has been shown to cause stomach and intestinal distress, liver and kidney damage, and anemia. Persons with Wilson's disease may be at a higher risk of health effects due to copper than the general public. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not copper has the potential to cause cancer from a lifetime exposure in drinking water. Usage Patterns Copper occurs in drinking water primarily due to its use in plumbing materials. Occurrence in Source Water and Distributed Water. Copper levels above the MCLG are rarely found in raw drinking water supplies or in distributed water. EPA estimates that only 66 water systems have copper levels in source water greater than the MCLG. Occurrence as a Corrosion By- Product. The primary source of copper in drinking water is corrosion of copper pipes, which are widely used throughout the United States for interior plumbing of residences and other buildings. In some cases, copper is a component of additives to drinking water used by systems to control the growth of algae. Release Patterns Although copper rarely occurs in source water, the following natural and artificial sources have been identified. Copper is widely distributed in nature in the elemental state, in sulfides, arsenites, chlorides, and carbonates. The element is only superficially oxidized in air, sometimes giving a green coating of hydroxy carbonate and hydroxy sulfate. The concentration of copper in the continental crust, generally estimated at 50 ppm, tends to be highest in the ferromagnesium minerals, such as the basalts pyropene and biotite, where it averages 140 ppm. Sandstones contain 10-40 ppm, shales 30-150 ppm, and marine black shales 20-300 ppm. Coal is relatively low in copper. In the sedimentary cycle copper is concentrated in the clay mineral fractions with a slight enrichment in those clays rich in organic carbon. Smelting operations and municipal incineration may also produce copper. Water and pasture have been found to be contaminated with copper in the vicinity of copper mines or smelting works. The principal source of elevated copper levels in air is copper dust generated by copper processing operations. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory copper compound releases to land and water totalled nearly 450 million lbs., of which nearly all was to land. These releases were primarily from copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Utah. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Tennessee. Environmental Fate As with lead, all water is corrosive toward copper to some degree, even water termed noncorrosive or water treated to make it less corrosive. Corrosivity toward copper depends primarily on the pH of the water, with very low pHs associated with the highest levels of copper corrosion by-products. Many of the other factors that affect the corrosivity of water toward lead can also be expected to affect the corrosion of copper. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-50-8 (metal) Color/Form/Odor: Reddish metal which may occur in water as copper salts, the most common of which are the chloride, nitrate and sulfate salts. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Solubilities (g/L water at 20 deg C): Chloride, 770; Nitrate, 1250; Sulfate, 207. Bioconcentration Factor: N/A Common Ores: Found as sulfides, arsenites, chlorides, and carbonates in the following ores: Chalcopyrite, Chalcocite, Bornite, Tetrahedrite, Enargite, Antlerite Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: For Copper For Water Quality Parameters Sampling Site: At Home Taps Within the At Entry to the Distribution Distribution System System Monitoring Period: Initial Every 6 months Every 6 months Every 6 months After corrosion Every 6 months Every 6 months Every 2 weeks control installation Reduced monitoring - Conditional Once a year Every 6 months Every 2 weeks - Final Every 3 years Every 3 years Every 2 weeks Analysis Reference Source Method Number EPA 800/4-83-043 220.2; 220.1 Standard Methods 3111-B; 3120 Treatment/Best Available Technologies Source water: Ion exchange; lime softening; reverse osmosis; coagulation/filtration Corrosion Control: pH and alkalinity adjustment; calcium adjustment; silica- or phosphate-based corrosion inhibition Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 1,538,148 442,082,245 Top Ten States * UT 55,350 153,501,500 NM 0 130,682,387 AZ 2,636 104,619,532 MI 19,763 11,172,897 NY 66,057 10,017,766 MT 0 8,696,153 TN 301,417 1,208,804 MO 250 1,486,000 AL 41,213 513,536 MD 78,601 270,945 Major Industries* Primary copper smelting 7,591 201,214,264 Other nonferrous smelt. 4,414 11,317,048 Plastic materials 44,422 9,637,850 Blast furnaces, steel 156,982 3,229,752 Poultry slaughtering 0 1,249,750 Copper rolling, drawing 17,253 941,075 Ind. organic chems 28,936 827,356 Prepared feeds, misc. 1,038 760,094 Ind. inorganic chems 220,503 527,458 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: CYANIDE Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.2 mg/l MCL: 0.2 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 0.2 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.2 mg/L Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found cyanide compounds to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: rapid breathing, tremors and other neurological effects. Short-term exposures in drinking water considered "safe" for a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming one liter of water per day: upto a 7-year exposure to 0.2 mg/L. Chronic: Cyanide compounds have the potential to cause the following chronic health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: weight loss, thyroid effects, nerve damage. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not cyanide compounds have the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns The most commonly used form, hydrogen cyanide, is mainly used in manufacturing other cyanides, particularly adiponitrile which is used in nylon, and acrylonitrile - used in acrylic/modacrylic fibers and resins. Other cyanides such as dichlobenil, bromoxynil and bantrol, are used as herbicides. Tabun is used as a chemical warfare agent. Potassium cyanide is used for silver plating and for dyes and specialty products. Available production data on cyanides: hydrogen cyanide, 1 billion lbs. in 1987; acrylonitrile-2.5 billion lbs. 1993; adiponitrile-1.4 billion lbs. in 1991; bromoxynil-2.6 million lbs in 1990; acetonitrile-35 million lb. in 1989. Release Patterns The major sources of cyanide releases to water are reported to be discharges from metal finishing industries, iron and steel mills, and organic chemical industries. Releases to soil appear to be primarily from disposal of cyanide wastes in landfills and the use of cyanide-containing road salts. Cyanide released to air from car exhaust is expected to exist almost entirely as hydrogen cyanide gas. Some foods may also naturally contain cyanides, including lima beans and almonds. Chlorination treatment of some wastewaters can produce chloroacetonitriles as a by-product. Cyanide has been found in drinking water at levels on the order of a few parts per billion. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory cyanide compound releases to land and water totalled about 1.5 million lbs., of which about 65 percent was to water. These releases were primarily from steel mills and metal heat treating industries. The largest releases occurred in California and Pennsylvania. Environmental Fate Nitriles are generally highly volatile and biodegradable when released to water, and are not expected to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms. Nitriles have the potential to leach to ground water as they do not adsorb to soil. They tend to be resistant to hydrolysis in soil or water. Cyanide-containing herbicides have more moderate potential for leaching, but again are readily biodegraded so they are not expected to bioconcentrate. Soluble cyanide compounds such as hydrogen and potassium cyanide have low adsorption to soils with high pH, high carbonate and low clay content. However, at pH less than 9.2, most free cyanide is expected to convert to hydrogen cyanide which is highly volatile. Soluble cyanides are not expected to bioconcentrate. Insoluble cyanide compounds such as the copper and silver salts may adsorb to soils and sediments, and generally have the potential to bioconcentrate. Insoluble forms do not biodegrade to hydrogen cyanide. Tabun is rapidly hydrolyzed in soil and water, and so is not expected to leach or bioconcentrate. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: Hydrogen cyanide- 74-90-8 Color/ Form/Odor: Cyanide is a carbon-nitrogen chemical unit which may be combined with a variety of organic and inorganic components. The most common is hydrogen cyanide, a colorless, flammable liquid or gas. Soil sorption coefficient: Kocs of 1 to 70 for most soluble forms, with the nitriles having highest mobility in soils. Insoluble forms are expected to adsorb to sediments. Cyanide-containing compounds: Organics: Nitriles like Acetonitrile, butanenitrile, etc; bromoxynil, cyanocobalamin, cyanogens, cyanohydrins, tabun Inorganics: combined with hydrogen, calcium, barium, sodium, zinc, nickel, mercury, potassium, copper, silver Bioconcentration Factor: BCFs of <1 to 50 for most soluble forms, which are not expected to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms. Insoluble forms may bioconcentrate. Solubilities: nitriles low to moderate cyanohydrin highly soluble cyanogens moderate to high tabun soluble other organics slightly soluble Hydrogen soluble sodium 48% at 10 deg C potassium 50% in cold water mercuric 10% at 14 deg C barium 80% at 14 deg C calcium soluble copper insoluble nickel insoluble silver insoluble zinc insoluble Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.2 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 335.1*; 335.2; 335.3 NTIS PB 91-231498 D2036-89A; D2036-89B* Standard Methods 4500-CN-D,E&,F; 4500-CN-G* *- measure "free" or amenable cyanide; other methods screen for "total" cyanide. Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Ion Exchange, Reverse Osmosis, Chlorine Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 939,611 641,082 Top Ten States * CA 0 430,886 PA 208,239 4,909 IN 187,377 20,242 OH 160,203 850 TX 54,379 83,394 MD 89,438 23,503 Major Industries* Blast furnaces + steel 747,970 53,404 Metal heat treating 0 430,886 Ind organic chems 49,098 82,912 Plating + polishing 29,486 29,636 For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: LEAD Drinking Water Standards MCLG: zero Action Level: > 0.015 mg/L in more than 10 percent of tap water samples HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute: Lead can cause a variety of adverse health effects in humans. At relatively low levels of exposure, these effects may include interference with red blood cell chemistry, delays in normal physical and mental development in babies and young children, slight deficits in the attention span, hearing, and learning abilities of children, and slight increases in the blood pressure of some adults. It appears that some of these effects, particularly changes in the levels of certain blood enzymes and in aspects of children's neurobehavioral development, may occur at blood lead levels so low as to be essentially without a threshold. Chronic: Chronic exposure to lead has been linked to cerebrovascular and kidney disease in humans. Cancer: Lead has the potential to cause cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels above the action level. Usage Patterns Lead is the fifth most important metal in the USA economy in terms of consumption. Of this approximately 85% of the primary lead is produced domestically and 40-50% is recovered and recycled. Eighty eight percent of the lead mined in the US comes from seven mines in the New Lead Belt in southeastern Missouri; the rest coming from eight mines in Colorado, Idaho, and Utah. Three of the six USA lead smelters are from this region, the others are located in Idaho, Montana, and Texas. Release Patterns Lead occurs in drinking water from two sources: (1) Lead in raw water supplies, i.e., source water or distributed water, and (2) corrosion of plumbing materials in the water distribution system (corrosion by-products). Most lead contamination is from corrosion by-products. Occurrence in Source Water and Distributed Water. Based on a variety of water quality surveys, EPA now estimates that approximately 600 groundwater systems and about 215 surface suppliers may have water leaving the treatment plant with lead levels greater than 0.005 mg/L These two sources together indicate that less than 1 percent of the public water systems in the United States have water entering the distribution system with lead levels greater than 0.005 mg/L. These systems serve less than 3 percent of people that receive their drinking water from public water systems. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory lead compound releases to land and water totalled nearly 144 million lbs., almost all of which was to land. These releases were primarily from lead and copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Missouri, Arizona and Montana. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Ohio. Occurrence as a Corrosion By-Product. Lead in drinking water results primarily from corrosion of materials located throughout the distribution system containing lead and copper and from lead and copper plumbing materials used to plumb public- and privately-owned structures connected to the distribution system. The amount of lead in drinking water attributable to corrosion by-products depends on a number of factors, including the amount and age of lead and copper bearing materials susceptible to corrosion, how long the water is in contact with the lead containing surfaces, and how corrosive the water in the system is toward these materials. The potential sources of lead corrosion by-products found in drinking water can include: Water service mains (rarely), lead goosenecks or pigtails, lead service lines and interior household pipes, lead solders and fluxes used to connect copper pipes, alloys containing lead, including some faucets made of brass or bronze. Most public water systems serve at least some buildings with lead solder and/or lead service lines. EPA estimates that there are about 10 million lead service lines/connections. About 20 percent of all public water systems have some lead service lines/connections within their distribution system. The amount of lead in drinking water depends heavily on the corrosivity of the water. All water is corrosive to metal plumbing materials to some degree, even water termed noncorrosive or water treated to make it less corrosive. The corrosivity of water to lead is influenced by water quality parameters such as pH, total alkalinity, dissolved inorganic carbonate, calcium, and hardness. Galvanic corrosion of lead into water also occurs with lead-soldered copper pipes, due to differences in the electrochemical potential of the two metals. Grounding of household electrical systems to plumbing may also exacerbate galvanic corrosion. Environmental Fate Lead may enter the environment during its mining, ore processing, smelting, refining use, recycling or disposal. The initial means of entry is via the atmosphere. Lead may also enter the atmosphere from the weathering of soil and volcanos, but these sources are minor compared with anthropogenic ones. Lead will be retained in the upper 2-5 cm of soil, especially soils with at least 5% organic matter or a pH 5 or above. Leaching is not important under normal conditions. It is expected to slowly undergo speciation to the more insoluble sulfate, sulfide, oxide, and phosphate salts. Lead enters water from atmospheric fallout, runoff or wastewater; little is transferred from natural ores. Metallic lead is attacked by pure water in the presence of oxygen, but if the water contains carbonates and silicates, protective films are formed preventing further attack. That which dissolves tends to form ligands. Lead is effectively removed from the water column to the sediment by adsorption to organic matter and clay minerals, precipitation as insoluble salt, and reaction with hydrous iron and manganese oxide. Under most circumstances, adsorption predominates. Lake sediment microorganisms are able to directly methylate certain inorganic lead compounds. Under appropriate conditions, dissolution due to anaerobic microbial action may be significant in subsurface environments. The mean percentage removal of lead during the activated sludge process was 82% and was almost entirely due to the removal of the insoluble fraction by adsorption onto the sludge floc and to a much lesser extent, precipitation. The most stable form of lead in natural water is a function of the ions present, the pH, and the redox potential. In oxidizing systems, the least soluble common forms are probably the carbonate, hydroxide, and hydroxycarbonate. In reduced systems where sulfur is present, PbS is the stable solid. The solubility of Pb is 10 ppb above pH 8, while near pH 6.5 the solubility can approach or exceed 100 ppb. Pb(0) and Pb(+2) can be oxidatively methylated by naturally occurring compounds such as methyl iodide and glycine betaine. This can result in the dissolution of lead already bound to sediment or particulate matter. Lead does not appear to bioconcentrate significantly in fish but does in some shellfish such as mussels. Evidence suggests that lead uptake in fish is localized in the mucous on the epidermis, the dermis, and scales so that the availability in edible portions do not pose a human health danger. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7439-92-1 Color/ Form/Odor: Bluish-white, silvery, gray metal, lustrous when freshly cut. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A; Low mobility in most soils, lowest at neutral pH and high organic matter. Common Ores: sulfide-Galena; oxide-Lanarkite; carbonate-Cerrusite; sulfate-Anglesite Bioconcentration Factor: Log BCFs for fish, 1.65; shellfish, 3.4 Solubilities: acetate- 443 g/L at 20 deg C arsenate- insoluble in cold water carbonate- 0.0011 g/L at 20 deg C chloride- 10 g/L cold water chromate- 0.2 mg/L nitrate- 376.5 g/L at 0 deg C oxide- 0.05 g/L at 20 deg C dioxide- insoluble phosphate- insoluble sulfate- 0.4 g/L sulfide- insoluble tetraethyl- 0.29 mg/L at 25 deg C thiocyanate- 0.5 g/L at 20 deg C thiosulfate- 0.3 g/L cold water Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: For Lead For Water Quality Parameters At Home Taps Within the At Entry to the Distribution Distribution Monitoring Period System System Initial Every 6 months Every 6 months Every 6 months After corrosion Every 6 months Every 6 months Every 2 weeks control installation Reduced monitoring - Conditional Once a year Every 6 months Every 2 weeks - Final Every 3 years Every 3 years Every 2 weeks Analysis Reference Source Method Number EPA 800/4-83-043 239.2; 200.8; 200.9 Treatment/Best Available Technologies Source water: Ion exchange; lime softening; reverse osmosis; coagulation/filtration Corrosion Control: pH and alkalinity adjustment; calcium adjustment; silica- or phosphate-based corrosion inhibition Toxics Release Inventory - Water and Land Releases, 1987-93 (in pounds) Water Land TOTALS 970,827 143,058,771 Top Twelve States * MO 4,408 40,656,278 AZ 771 23,240,625 MT 0 20,822,517 UT 4,600 11,881,000 TX 1,988 11,515,211 OH 127,990 5,196,522 IN 62,894 4,851,940 TN 7,140 2,095,489 IL 26,601 1,930,000 WI 1,310 1,350,960 MN 0 1,313,895 NM 0 1,060,880 Major Industries* Lead smelting/refining 31,423 68,996,819 Copper smelting 5,371 34,942,505 Steelworks/blast furn. 379,849 18,149,696 Storage batteries 0 1,867,292 China plumbing fixtures 1,310 1,350,960 Iron foundries 10,021 1,274,777 Copper mining 0 1,240,000 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than 100,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: MERCURY Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.002 mg/L MCL: 0.002 mg/L HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found mercury to potentially cause kidney damage from short-term exposures at levels above the MCL. No Health Advisories have been established for short-term exposures. Chronic: Mercury has the potential to cause kidney damage from long-term exposure at levels above the MCL. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not mercury has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns Nearly 8 million lbs. of mercury were produced in the U.S. in 1986. Electrical products such as dry-cell batteries, fluorescent light bulbs, switches, and other control equipment account for 50% of mercury used. Mercury is also used in substantial quantities in electrolytic preparation of chlorine and caustic soda (chlor-alkali industry, mercury cell process; 25%), paint manufacture (12%), and dental preparations (3%). Lesser quantities are used in industrial catalyst manufacture (2%), pesticides manufacture (1%), general laboratory use (1%), and pharmaceuticals (0.1%). Release Patterns A joint FAO/WHO expert committee on Food Additives in 1972 quotes the major source of mercury as the natural degassing of the earth's crust in the range of 25,000-150,000 ton of Hg/yr. Twenty thousand tons of mercury are also released into the environment each year by human activities such as combustion of fossil fuels and other industrial release. Anthropogenic sources of airborne mercury (Hg) may arise from the operation of metal smelters or cement manufacture. Water borne pollution may originate in sewage, metal refining operations, or most notably, from chloralkali plants. In general, industrial and domestic products, such as thermometers, batteries, and electrical switches which account for a significant loss of mercury to the environment, ultimately become solid waste in major urban areas. From 1987 to 1993, according to EPA's Toxic Chemical Release Inventory, mercury releases to land and water totalled nearly 68,000 lbs., of which 90 percent was to land. These releases were primarily from chemical and allied industries. The largest releases occurred in Tennessee and Louisiana. The largest direct releases to water occurred in West Virginia and Alabama. Environmental Fate Two characteristics, volatility and biotransformation, make mercury somewhat unique as an environmental toxicant. Its volatility accounts for atmospheric concentrations up to 4 times the level of contaminated soils in an area. Inorganic forms of mercury (Hg) can be converted to organic forms by microbial action in the biosphere. In aquatic systems, mercury appears to bind to dissolved matter or fine particulates, while the transport of mercury bound to dust particles in the atmosphere or bed sediment particles in rivers and lakes is generally less substantial. The conversion, in aquatic environments, of inorganic mercury compounds to methyl mercury implies that recycling of mercury from sediment to water to air and back could be a rapid process. In a study of mercury elimination from wastewater, 47% of added mercury was removed in presence of a Pseudomonas strain. Uptake of mercury was severely inhibited by sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, and mono- and dibasic potassium phosphate. In the atmosphere, 50% of the volatile form is mercury (Hg) vapor with sizeable portion of remainder being Hg(II) and methylmercury, 25 to 50% of Hg in water is organic. Hg in the environment is deposited and revolatilized many times, with a residence time in the atmosphere of at least a few days. In the volatile phase it can be transported hundreds of kilometers. Bioconcentration factors of 63,000 for freshwater fish, 10,000 for salt water fish, 100,000 for marine invertebrates, and 1000 for freshwater and marine plants have been found. As the tissue concentration approaches steady-state, net accumulation rate is slowed either by a reduction in uptake rate, possibly due to inhibition of membrane transport, or by an increase in depuration rate, possibly because of a saturation of storage sites, or both. Acidification of a body of water might also increase mercury residues in fish even if no new input of mercury occurs, possibly because lower pH increases ventilation rate and membrane permeability, accelerates the rates of methylation and uptake, affects partitioning between sediment and water, or reduces growth or reproduction of fish. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7439-97-6 Color/ Form/Odor: Silver-white, heavy, mobile, liquid metal. Solid mercury is tin-white. Odorless M.P.: -38.87ø C B.P.: 356.7ø C Vapor Pressure: 2x10-3 mm Hg at 25ø C Density/Spec. Grav.: 13.5 at 25ø C Solubility: 0.06 g/L of water at 25ø C; Slightly soluble in water Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Odor/Taste Thresholds: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: Bioconcentration factors of 63,000 for freshwater and 10,000 for salt water fishes. BCFs of 100,000 for invertebrates. Henry's Law Coefficient: N/A; volatilization from water and soil is significant Synonyms/Ores: Liquid silver, Quicksilver, Hydragyrum, Colloidial mercury. Important commercial ore is cinnabar, but also found in limestone, calcareous shales, sandstone, serpentine, chert andesite and others. Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.002 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 245.1; 245.2 Standard Methods 303F Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Coagulation/Filtration*; Granular Activated Carbon; Lime softening*; Reverse osmosis* * These treatments are recommended only if influent Hg concentrations do not exceed 10 ug/L Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 6,971 60,877 Top Six States TN 164 29,161 LA 431 21,829 DE 117 3,860 OH 29 2,760 AL 1,462 1,001 WV 1,657 454 Major Industries Chemical, allied products 12,269 74,720 Electric lamps 0 2,750 Paper mills 2,500 0 For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 ú National Pesticide Hotline - 800/858-7378 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: NICKEL Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.1 mg/l MCL: 0.1 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 1 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.5 mg/L NOTE: The MCLG and MCL for nickel are being remanded. Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has not found nickel to potentially cause health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL. Short-term exposures in drinking water considered "safe" for a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming one liter of water per day: a one- to ten-day exposure to 1 mg/L; upto a 7 year exposure to 0.5 mg/L. Chronic: Nickel has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: decreased body weight; heart and liver damage; dermatitis. Cancer: There is no evidence that nickel has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns Production of nickel was 84.6 million lbs. in 1986, down slightly from 1982 report of almost 90 million lbs. In 1986 it was estimated that industries consumed nickel as follows: transportation, 25%, chemical industry, 15%; electrical equipment, 9%; construction, 9%; fabricated metal products, 9%; petroleum, 8%; household appliances, 7%; machinery, 7%; and other, 11%. Nickel carbonate is used in nickel catalyst production for organic chemical manufacture, petroleum refining and edible oil hardening. Nickel oxide consumption in 1972 (representing over 30 million lbs. contained nickel) is estimated to have been as follows: 60% for stainless and heat resisting steels, 27% for other steel alloys, 8% for other nickel alloys, 2% for cast irons, and 3% for other uses. Release Patterns Nickel is found in many ores as sulfides, arsenides, antimonides & oxides or silicates; chief sources include chalcopyrite; others are pyrrhotite, pentlandite, garnierite, niccolite, millerite. The principal natural form of nickel oxide occurs in admixture with nickel sulfides in varying proportions in weathered ore. Nickel carbonate, found as the mineral zaratite, is a potential atmospheric and surface water pollutant. Inadvertent formation of nickel carbonyl can occur in various industrial processes that use nickel catalysts, such as coal gasification, petroleum refining, and hydrogenation of fats and oils. Nickel oxide has been identified in residual fuel oil and in atmospheric emissions from nickel refineries. Trinickel disulfide is a major component in nickel refinery flue dust. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory nickel releases to land and water totalled nearly 27 million lbs., of which most was to land. These releases were primarily from nickel smelting/refining and steelworks industries. The largest releases occurred in Oregon and Arkansas. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Maryland and Georgia. Environmental Fate Nickel is one of the most mobile of the heavy metals in the aquatic environment. The mobility of nickel in the aquatic environment is controlled largely by the capability of various sorbents to scavenge it from solution. Although data are limited, it appears that in pristine environments, hydrous oxides of iron and manganese control nickel's mobility via co-precipitation and sorption. In polluted environments, the more prevalent organic material will keep nickel soluble. In reducing environments, insoluble nickel sulfide may be formed. Nickel chloride is water soluble and would be expected to release divalent nickel into the water. The atmosphere is a major conduit for nickel as particulate matter. Contributions to atmospheric loading come from both natural sources and anthropogenic activity, with input from both stationary and mobile sources. Various dry and wet precipitation processes remove particulate matter as wash out or fallout from the atmosphere with transfer to soils and waters. Soil borne nickel may enter waters by surface runoff or by percolation into ground water. Once nickel is in surface and ground water systems, physical and chemical interactions (complexation, precipitation/dissolution, adsorption/desorption, and oxidation/reduction) occur that will determine its fate and that of its constituents. The only gaseous nickel compound of environmental importance is nickel carbonyl. Under ambient conditions in moist air, it decomposes to form nickel carbonate. Thus, in the atmosphere at concentrations near the ppb level, it has a half-life of about 30 minutes. The removal of nickel carbonyl by precipitation or by adsorption on surfaces has not been documented. Since this compound is soluble in water, precipitation scavenging is possible. Nothing is known about its reaction with natural surfaces or its uptake by vegetation. Thus, dry deposition rates cannot be predicted until some experimental investigations have been conducted. Although nickel is bioaccumulated, the concentration factors are such as to suggest that partitioning into the biota is not a dominant fate process. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-02-0 Color/ Form/Odor: Nickel is a silvery metal found only in combined form in nature. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A; sorption related to that of iron/manganese oxides, organic matter. Bioconcentration Factor: N/A; not expected to bioconcentrate Common Ores: sulfide- chalcopyrite, heazlewoodite (disulfide); sulfate- morenosite; carbonate- zaratite; oxide- bunsenite; others- pyrrhotite, pentlandite, garnierite, niccolite, millerite Solubilities: acetate- 17% at 65 deg C carbonate- 93 mg/L at 25 deg C carbonyl- insoluble chloride- 642 g/L at 20 deg C cyanide- insoluble disulfide- insoluble fluoride- 40 g/L at 25 deg C hydroxide- 0.13 g/L cold water iodide- 1242 g/L at 0 deg C nitrate- 48.5 Wt% at 20 deg C oxide- 0.11 mg/L at 20 deg C sulfate- 293 g/L at 0 deg C Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.1 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 249.1; 249.1 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.7; 200.8; 200.9 Standard Methods 3111B; 3113; 3120 Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 709,236 26,079,419 Top Ten States * OR 459 6,256,532 AR 4,250 5,622,900 ID 1,000 2,200,250 IN 28,050 2,098,196 PA 19,680 2,052,736 AZ 767 984,817 TX 0 777,400 MD 77,200 666,637 CA 6,687 285,731 GA 61,100 193,111 Major Industries* Primary nonferrous meta 16,874 12,053,688 Blast furnaces + steel 304,891 6,784,227 Ind inorganic chems 22,689 2,519,468 Ind organic chems 109,141 1,105,934 Petroleum refining 186,499 949,411 Primary copper 1,272 996,817 Iron+steel foundries 500 409,000 Gray iron foundries 3,326 334,524 Inorganic pigments 62,394 193,111 * Water/Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than a certain amount - usually 1000 to 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: NITRATE/NITRITE Drinking Water Standards (in mg/L) Nitrate- MCLG: 10; MCL: 10; 10-day HAL: 10 Nitrite- MCLG: 1; MCL: 1; 10-day HAL: 1 Total (Nitrate+Nitrite)- MCLG: 10; MCL: 10; 10-day HAL: 10 Health Effects Summary Acute: Excessive levels of nitrate in drinking water have caused serious illness and sometimes death. The serious illness in infants is due to the conversion of nitrate to nitrite by the body, which can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity of the child's blood. This can be an acute condition in which health deteriorates rapidly over a period of days. Symptoms include shortness of breath and blueness of the skin. Drinking water levels which are considered "safe" for short-term exposures: For a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming 1 liter of water per day, a ten-day exposure to 10 mg/L total nitrate/nitrite. Chronic: Effects of chronic exposure to high levels of nitrate/nitrite include diuresis, increased starchy deposits and hemorrhaging of the spleen. Cancer: There is inadequate evidence to state whether or not nitrates or nitrites have the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns Most nitrogenous materials in natural waters tend to be converted to nitrate, so all sources of combined nitrogen, particularly organic nitrogen and ammonia, should be considered as potential nitrate sources. Primary sources of organic nitrates include human sewage and livestock manure, especially from feedlots. The primary inorganic nitrates which may contaminate drinking water are potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate. Potassium nitrates are used mainly as fertilizers (85%), with the remainder in heat transfer salts, glass and ceramics, and in matches and fireworks. Ammonium nitrates are used as fertilizers (84%) and in explosives and blasting agents (16%). Release Patterns The major environmental releases of inorganic sources of nitrates are due to the use of fertilizers. According to the Toxics Release Inventory, releases to water and land totalled over 112 million pounds from 1991 through 1993. The largest releases of inorganic nitrates occurred in Georgia and California. Environmental Fate Due to its high solubility and weak retention by soil, nitrates are very mobile in soil, moving at approximately the same rate as water, and has a high potential to migrate to ground water. Because it does not volatilize, nitrate/nitrite is likely to remain in water until consumed by plants or other organisms. Ammonium nitrate will be taken up by bacteria. Nitrate is more persistent in water than the ammonium ion. Nitrate degradation is fastest in anaerobic conditions. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: Nitrate ion: 14797-55-8; Nitrite ion: 14797-65-0 Color/ Form/Odor: Domestic fertilizer grade ammonium or potassium nitrates are in prilled (beaded) or crystalline forms, usually coated with an anti-caking agent and adsorbed fuel oil. Solubilities: Nitrates and nitrites are highly soluble in water Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: N/A Trade Names/Synonyms: Potassium salt: Potnit, Hitec, Niter, Nitrate of potash, Saltpeter. Ammonium salt: German or Norway saltpeter, Varioform I, Merco or Herco prills, Nitram. Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-Nitrate: 1 sample annually Nitrite: 1 sample during first 3-year compliance period Repeat Frequency-Nitrate: 1 sample annually Nitrite: determined by State -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-Nitrate: 1 sample each quarter Nitrite: 1 sample during first 3-year compliance period Repeat Frequency-Nitrate: 1 sample annually Nitrite: determined by State --Triggers - If detect at > 5 mg/L nitrate, sample quarterly. If detect at > 0.5 mg/L nitrite, sample quarterly. If detect total nitrate + nitrite > 5 mg/L, sample quarterly Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 353.1; 353.2; 353.3; 300.0; 354.1 Standard Methods 418C; 418F ASTM D3867-85A; D3867-85B Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Ion exchange; Reverse osmosis; Electrodialysis (nitrate only) Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 59,014,378 53,134,805 Top Fifteen States* GA 12,114,253 12,028,585 CA 0 21,840,999 AL 3,463,097 6,014,674 LA 8,778,237 2,250 MO 6,985,890 206,181 MS 6,952,387 0 KS 5,140,000 877,095 VA 5,091,764 0 NV 0 4,977,482 FL 1,056,560 1,835,736 AR 1,206,610 1,058,294 MD 1,802,219 138,819 IA 1,500,340 132,042 OK 1,436,348 14,199 UT 0 1,045,400 Major Industries* Nitrogenous fertilizer 41,584,611 8,607,376 Misc. Ind. inorganics 4,113,312 29,676,919 Misc. Metal ores 0 5,764,976 Misc. Ind. organics 5,091,764 0 Fertilizer mixing 480,000 4,554,916 Explosives 850,921 1,297,590 Paper mills 1,727,061 0 Pulp mills 1,321,500 3,350 Canned foods 0 1,056,794 Phosphate fertilizers 1,000,000 0 * State/Industry totals only include facilities with releases greater than 10,000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: SELENIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.05 mg/l MCL: 0.05 mg/l HAL(child): none Health Effects Summary Acute: Selenium is an essential nutrient at low levels. However, EPA has found it to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: hair and fingernail changes; damage to the peripheral nervous system; fatigue and irritability. No Health Advisories have been established for short-term exposures. Chronic: Selenium has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: hair and fingernail loss; damage to kidney and liver tissue, and the nervous and circulatory systems. Cancer: There is no evidence that selenium has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns Selenium is used extensively in the manufacture and production of glass, pigments, rubber, metal alloys, textiles, petroleum, medical therapeutic agents, and photographic emulsions. Selenium dioxide is the most widely used selenium compound in industry. It is used as an oxidizing agent in drug and other chemical manufacture; a catalyst in organic syntheses; an antioxidant in lubricating oils. Production in 1985 was reported to be 429,515 pounds, with demand for its various uses as follows: electronic and photocopier components, 35%; Glass manufacturing, 30%; Chemical and pigments, 25%; and Other, 10%. Release Patterns There are no true deposits of selenium anywhere and it cannot economically be recovered from the earth directly. It usually occurs in the sulfide ores of the heavy metals; this includes pyrite, clausthalite, naumannite, tienammite and in selenosulfur. Soils in the neighborhood of volcanoes tend to have enriched amounts of selenium. Selenium is the most strongly enriched element in coal, being present as an organoselenium compound, a chelated species, or as an adsorbed element. Selenium compounds are released to the air during the combustion of coal and petroleum fuels, and during the smelting and refining of other metals. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory selenium releases to land and water totalled over 1 million lbs., of which about 99 percent was to land. These releases were primarily from copper smelting industries. The largest releases occurred in Utah. The largest direct releases to water occurred in Indiana. Selenium concentration in fresh water is usually around 0.02 ppm. The selenium content of surface water is greatly influenced by pH, being high in acidic (pH < 3.0) and in alkaline waters (pH > 7.5). Traces of selenium ranging from 0.0000-0.01 ppm are commonly found in community drinking water. Environmental Fate The toxicity of selenium depends on whether it is in the biologically active oxidized form. In alkaline soils and oxidizing conditions, selenium may be oxidized sufficiently to maintain the availability of its biologically active form, and cause plant uptake of the metal to be increased. In acidic or neutral soils, it tends to remain relatively insoluble and the amount of biologically available selenium should steadily decrease. Selenium volatilizes from soils when converted to volatile selenium compounds (such as dimethyl selenide, dimethyl diselenide, and others) by microorganisms. It is known that selenium accumulates in living tissues. For example, the selenium content of human blood is about 0.2 ppm. This value is about 1000 times greater than the selenium found in surface waters. It is clear that the human body does accumulate or concentrate selenium with respect to the environmental levels of selenium. Selenium has been found in marine fish meal at levels of about 2 ppm. This amount is around 50,000 times greater than the selenium found in seawater. Selenium dioxide is the primary source of problems from industrial exposures since the dioxide forms selenious acid with water or sweat, and the acid is an irritant. Selenium compounds released during coal or petroleum combustion may be a significant source of exposure. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7782-49-2 Color/ Form/Odor: Selenium is a metal which exists in nature only in the combined form. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A Bioconcentration Factor: BCF of 1000 in humans; 50,000 in marine fish Solubilities: dioxide- 384 g/L at 14 deg C hydrogen- 3.8 L/L at 4 deg C sodium- 850 g/L at 20 deg C sulfide- insoluble Common Ores: Usually found in the sulfide ores of the heavy metals, such as pyrite, clausthalite, naumannite, tiemannite. Also found in coal. Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers - If detect at > 0.05 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 270.2 ASTM Standards 1991 D3859-84A; D3859-88 Standard Methods (17th ed.) 3113B; 3114B Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Activated Alumina, Coagulation/Filtration (SeVI only), Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 13,556 1,010,686 Top Five States * UT 1,578 696,515 AZ 0 260,632 WI 0 45,000 IN 5,300 0 TX 359 4,920 Major Industries* Copper smelting, refining 1,500 962,067 Metal coatings 0 45,000 Petroleum refining 8,949 977 * Land totals only include facilities with releases greater than 1000 lbs. For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations Technical Factsheet on: THALLIUM Drinking Water Standards MCLG: 0.0005 mg/l MCL: 0.002 mg/l HAL(child): 1- to 10-day: 0.007 mg/L; Longer-term: 0.007 mg/L Health Effects Summary Acute: EPA has found thallium to potentially cause the following health effects from acute exposures at levels above the MCL: gastrointestinal irritation; peripheral neuropathy. Short-term exposures considered "safe" for a 10-kg (22 lb.) child consuming one liter of water per day: upto a 7-year exposure to 0.007 mg/L. Chronic: Thallium has the potential to cause the following health effects from long-term exposures at levels above the MCL: changes in blood chemistry; damage to liver, kidney, intestinal and testicular tissues; hair loss. Cancer: There is no evidence that thallium has the potential to cause cancer from lifetime exposures in drinking water. Usage Patterns There is no domestic production of thallium. Approximately 4,500 lbs. of thallium and its compounds were imported in 1987. In 1984, US industry consumed thallium compounds as follows: electronics industry, 60-70%; the remainder was used in pharmaceuticals, alloys and glass manufacture. Thallium compounds are used in infrared spectrometers, in crystals, in other optical systems, and for coloring glass; in semiconductor research; with mercury for switches and closures which operate at subzero temperatures; in photoelectric cells, lamps, and, in electronics, in scintillation counters; as catalyst in organic synthesis; as a rat poison, as an ant bait, and as a reagent in analytical chemistry. It was also formerly used as a depilating agent by dermatologists and as a cosmetic depilatory cream. Release Patterns In nature, thallium is present as a trace compound in many minerals, mainly associated with potassium and rubidium. Man-made sources of thallium pollution are gaseous emission of cement factories, coal burning power plants, and metal sewers. The leaching of thallium from ore processing operations is the major source of elevated thallium concentrations in water. Thallium is a trace metal associated with copper, gold, zinc, and cadmium. Water concentrations of 1 to 88 parts per billion have been reported in rivers draining metal mining areas. From 1987 to 1993, according to the Toxics Release Inventory thallium releases to land and water totalled over 5,000 lbs., of which about half was to water. These releases were primarily from copper smelting and petroleum refining industries. The largest releases occurred in Texas and Ohio. Environmental Fate In a study of thallium movement in a simple aquatic ecosystem, concentrations of thallium decrease slowly in the water and increase tenfold in the vegetation and fish. Definite transport of thallium occurred among water, fish, and vegetation, but no transport was seen between the sand other ecosystem components. It was found that increasing pH decreased thallium-inorganic interactions. Increases in pH, however, produced extensive thallium-humic acid interaction. It appears that thallium-organic interactions may be important in most natural water systems. In reducing environments, thallous species may precipitate as a sulfide; otherwise, it will remain in solution. Thallium sulfate has been used as a rodenticide in Japan, where it was sprayed over forest areas, but was not found to persist in water for more than a month. Since thallium is soluble in most aquatic systems, it is readily available to aquatic organisms and is quickly bioaccumulated. Goldfish have a higher rate of uptake for thallium than for the five most common alkali metals. Some algae are able to concentrate thallium by a factor of 127 to 220 within one hour; in comparison, the concentration factors of 2.7 hours exposure were 114 for lead, 30 for cadmium, 80 for zinc, and 313 for copper. Bioconcentration factors: in freshwater fish, factor of 100,000; in marine invertebrates, factor of 150,000; in marine fish, factor of 100,000; in freshwater and marine plants, factor of 100,000; in clams (Mya arenia), factor of 17.6-18.6; in mussel (Mytilus edulis), factor of 10.9-12.4; and in Atlantic salmon, factor of 27-1430. Chemical/Physical Properties CAS Number: 7440-28-0 (metal) Color/ Form/Odor: Thallium is a metallic element that exists in nature only in as salts and other combined forms. Soil sorption coefficient: N/A; strongly adsorbed to some clays at alkaline pH. Bioconcentration Factor: Log BCFs = 5 to 5.2 in fish, invertebrates; expected to bioconcentrate Solubilities: acetate very soluble carbonate- 4% (w/w) cold water chloride- 2.9 g/L at 15.5 deg C nitrate- 39.1 g/L to 95.5 g/L at 20 deg C oxide- insoluble sulfate- 48.7 g/L at 20 deg C Common Ores: Thallium is a trace metal associated with potassium in copper, gold, zinc, and cadmium ores. Other Regulatory Information Monitoring: -- For Ground Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample once every 3 years Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- For Surface Water Sources: Initial Frequency-1 sample annually Repeat Frequency-If no detections for 3 rounds, once every 9 years -- Triggers -If detect at > 0.002 mg/L, sample quarterly. Analysis Reference Source Method Numbers EPA 600/4-79-020 279.2 NTIS PB 91-231498 200.8; 200.9 Standard Methods 3113; 3113B Treatment/Best Available Technologies: Activated alumina; Ion Exchange Toxic Release Inventory - Releases to Water and Land, 1987 to 1993 (in pounds): Water Land TOTALS 2,606 2,770 Top Five States TX 6 2,020 OH 1,500 0 MN 1,100 0 CO 0 500 IN 0 250 Major Industries* Primary copper smelting 1,856 765 Petroleum refining 750 1,255 Primary nonferrous metals 0 500 Blast furnaces, steelworks 0 250 For Additional Information: EPA can provide further regulatory and other general information: ú EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline - 800/426-4791 Other sources of toxicological and environmental fate data include: ú Toxic Substance Control Act Information Line - 202/554-1404 ú Toxics Release Inventory, National Library of Medicine - 301/496-6531 ú Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry - 404/639-6000